Mining sector investments in Africa should be structured in such a way so the continent can benefit from the carbon pricing policies in developed countries. Current supply chains rely on specialized networks where different parts of the production process are spread out globally. This system of global value chains (GVCs) leads to greenhouse gas emissions from transportation and waste generation. Carbon border taxes, coupled with a trend towards environment, social, and governance (ESG) investments, could incentivize multinational companies to avoid excess emissions and waste by moving intermediate stages of production closer to the source of mineral extraction. This, in turn, would provide a boost to foreign investment across Africa. The incentive for companies to shrink these value chains is even higher in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has exposed some of the risks of relying on extensive global supply networks.
The 2009 Africa Mining Vision (AMV) provides guidance for the industrialization of African countries by leveraging their mining sector. It does not, however, include recommendations on how governments should embrace the recent climate change agenda as an opportunity for industrialization and sustainable development. The AMV’s neglect of climate change does not make it irrelevant, however. On the contrary, its focus on skills and technology development is more important than ever to seize the opportunity of the localization of GVCs. Moreover, the AMV’s focus on harmonizing mineral policies across sub-regional blocs and the continent is crucial to coordinate the regional dynamics of technology, skills and governance systems across resource-rich countries.
International climate change policy has many implications for Africa, including increased extraction of minerals needed in clean energy applications1 and the greening of mines.2 The localization of GVCs—induced by a rising carbon cost and by the desire to build resilience in supply chains—provides another set of opportunities. Seizing this momentum requires policy guidance to ensure that the relocation of industries in GVCs occurs upstream (closer to mineral sources) rather than downstream (closer to final consumers). An open acknowledgement of the impact of climate change on shifting GVCs for critical minerals and the emerging role of sustainability and ESG requirements should form the foundation of a revised and consolidated AMV.
Evidence for rising carbon prices and its effect on value chain localization
There are currently 64 carbon pricing initiatives, covering over 22 per cent of global emissions, up from 16 initiatives covering less than 5 per cent of emissions since the AMV was adopted in 2009. The largest scheme in terms of revenue is the European Union’s (EU) internal cap-and-trade system, the Emissions Trading System (ETS).3 Such carbon pricing schemes are on the rise everywhere, particularly in Asia. China, for example, has been developing draft carbon pricing regulations, conducting regional pilots, and implemented a national cap-and-trade system starting this year.
However, some policymakers continue to object to carbon pricing due to its effects on domestic competitiveness. To address this aspect, one key component of the EU Commission’s new agenda is a Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM); the Commission has submitted this idea to public consultation and plans to adopt a proposal for an EU directive in the second quarter of 2021.4 The CBAM would impose a tariff on any product imported from a country without a carbon pricing plan.
Total CO2 emissions from freight transportation account for 7 per cent of global CO2 emissions and are estimated to quadruple by 2050. Because of this sizeable contribution, regulators will likely include the carbon cost of transportation, packaging and waste in the product carbon footprint that is subject to tax. While the complexity of carbon accounting complicates the implementation of such taxes,5 research on harmonizing carbon accounting methods is already underway. Furthermore, game theory research suggests that the threat alone of border taxes could lead to a waterfall effect, with other nations applying domestic carbon taxes to capture the revenue domestically.6
Even without such border taxes, companies are already getting serious about reducing their own emissions.7 Some companies, including Apple, Microsoft, Shell and Volvo, have decided to reduce both direct and indirect emissions from their entire supply chains (including mineral supply chains8). As of February 2021, more than 1,200 companies worldwide are either pursuing internal carbon pricing or preparing to do so, and nearly 80 global companies have pledged to reach carbon neutrality by 20509Notably, BP recently revised its internal carbon prices to US$ 100/tCO2e in 2030. These trends are driven by self-interest: climate change constitutes an ESG risk to investors in these large companies. In January 2020, Larry Fink, the CEO of BlackRock, the largest asset manager in the world, declared that "climate risk is investment risk". Climate Action 100+, a non-profit group of over 300 large investors, helped persuade three of the world’s largest mining and steel companies, ArcelorMittal, Thyssenkrupp and BHP, to commit to becoming carbon neutral by 2050. Global capital markets’ significantly increased focus on ESG-related issues will likely induce structural changes in many productive sectors, particularly in Africa’s mining and energy industry.10
Moreover, research11 refutes the argument that carbon costs lead companies to exploit carbon havens by moving operations to less regulated countries. In fact, there is evidence that border tariffs harm vertical specialization12, so companies should adapt their production process by reducing the carbon costs associated with the transportation of intermediate products between sites. The localization of mineral value chains provides a pathway for companies to achieve substantial emissions reductions, as evidenced in Chile’s copper industry.13 Multinationals are therefore likely to consider supply chain localization in response to the pressure to reduce their upstream emissions and to build resilience to supply chain disruption.
How can Africa make the most of this trend?
Africa is a major source of many minerals that are likely to experience large demand growth in the future, especially in the clean energy sector. The World Bank’s Climate-Smart Mining report claims that the green transition will be mineral intensive and that demand for graphite, cobalt and lithium may increase by 500 per cent by 2050. A large proportion of these minerals are found in many African countries such as the Democratic Republic of Congo (cobalt), Gabon (manganese), Madagascar (graphite), Zambia (copper) and Zimbabwe (lithium).14 The localization of mineral-based global value chains presents an opportunity for Africa to industrialize. There is even some preliminary evidence supporting a high localization potential in Africa for solar photovoltaic and wind energy value chains, given the right conditions.15
Despite these assumptions that increases in carbon prices might open opportunities for growth in Africa, there is limited knowledge about how carbon costs would impact supply chain localization. There are also gaps in knowledge about how Africa can benefit from such a shift and which industries have high localization potential in Africa. Filling these knowledge gaps is crucial for developing an updated industrialization plan for Africa.
Moreover, there is a need to understand the roles stakeholders can play, an aspect the AMV does not address. For the longest time, mineral resource governance in Africa has played out in the arena of public sector institutions, with private companies negotiating concessions for resource extraction. Little attention has been paid to the role of company boards, shareholders and private sector regulators (such as stock market regulators), whose interests are often wrongfully considered as being opposed to attaining sustainable mining. Impact investing capital allocated to resolving sustainability challenges is on the rise.16 Climate change, the COVID-19 pandemic and the ESG wave have catalysed a new set of investor actions (to which boards of directors are accountable) that can have a positive impact on people and the planet.
To inform the update of the AMV or Africa’s industrialization policies in general, extensive consultations must be conducted with the boards of directors of mining companies, operation managers in Africa, institutional investors, business development experts, as well as with international institutions accompanying policy developments in Africa, such as UNECA, UNIDO, AfDB and AU. Our view is that research on four fronts should serve as the basis for a climate-smart update of the AMV. First, understanding how the increase in carbon costs, the COVID-19 crisis and rising investor pressure has reshaped and may further shape global value chains. Second, identifying how well-positioned Africa is to take advantage of any trends towards the regionalization of minerals-based GVCs. Third, providing policy recommendations to governments, the mining industry, company boards and institutional investors in Africa to maximize the benefits from trends resulting from climate policy by supporting the participation of African countries in the GVCs of critical minerals. And lastly fourth, fostering a new governance framework that engages all stakeholders—including governments, mining companies, shareholders, investors and affected communities—in a constructive dialogue to create sustainable supply chains adaptable to shifting ESG-related demands.
Disclaimer: The views expressed in this article are those of the authors based on their experience and on prior research and do not necessarily reflect the views of UNIDO (read more).
Have your say
What is your opinion on the IAP?